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Jewish Identity in the post-Soviet countries

In 2019-2020, the Institute for Euro-Asian Jewish Studies, founded by the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress, conducted a large-scale study in five post-Soviet countries. We are pleased to present some of the results on this page, while the entire research can be found in the attached monograph. Please note that this page contains only partial data of a full-scale study, without inter-factor relationships or breakdowns by country, age, or other categories. If you are interested in more specific data, please contact us.

Jewish population

There are different approaches to assessing the size of the Jewish population in the CIS countries. The difference in approaches and the difficulty of accurately determining the population size are caused by various factors, such as: inaccuracies in population censuses, an ambiguity of the Jewish identity and self-identification models in the countries of the former USSR.

Meeting the criteria of the Israeli Law of Return is the broadest category in belonging to the Jewish population that includes the ethnic core, the “second generation” Jews, and non-Jewish family members.

Using the estimate of one of the leading experts in Jewish demography, Professor Sergio Della Pergola, we can assume that 850-930 thousand people in the countries of the former USSR fall under the Law of Return, 40-45% of whom are ethnic Jews (up to 30% of the overall number – persons of monogenic Jewish origin plus descendants of mixed marriages with a stable Jewish identity).

🇷🇺 Russia

550-600 thousand

🇺🇦 Ukraine

220-270 thousand

🇧🇾 Belarus

35-45 thousand

🇲🇩 Moldova

15-22 thousand

🇰🇿 Kazakhstan

3-15 thousand

Jewish identity

Most of the surveyed members of the “extended Jewish population” identify as Jewish always or in specific situations. Almost every issue shows a dependency of the stability of Jewish identity on one’s origin (the number of Jews among the respondents’ grandparents). Nevertheless, there are differences between various models of Jewishness.

The ethnic understanding of Jewishness remains the most important factor, i.e. the origin, identity, and pride in the Jewish history and culture. Religious understanding plays a significantly smaller albeit gradually increasing role. In the post-Soviet countries, the system of Jewish religious communities with synagogues, Jewish schools and kindergartens was recreated. In these institutions, Jewishness is defined solely on the basis of the Jewish religious law – the Halakha.

Today’s post-Soviet Jewish identity was formed as a result of interactions between three fundamentally different models: Soviet, “Sokhnut”, (a broad understanding of “Jewishness” or being related to it in accordance with the Israeli Law of Return) and the Orthodox (religious). Each of these models looks illogical from the point of view of other models and, without a well-thought-out policy, causes misunderstandings, resentments, and conflicts.

Do you consider yourself Jewish?

58%

Yes, definitely

23%

Not always, depends on circumstances

10%

No

8%

Never thought about it

Do you consider yourself...

21%

Just Jewish

31%

A Russian/Ukrainian, etc. Jew

18%

Russian, Ukrainian/etc. and Jewish at the same time

5%

Only Russian/a member of another non-Jewish ethnic group

20%

Just a person

81% of respondents feel Jewish always or in relevant situations. This number reaches 95% among respondents with 3-4 Jewish grandparents.

There is a tendency towards a local Jewish identity that prevails over the universal one.
The “Soviet Jewry” concept is losing its relevance. Meanwhile most people believe in the existence of a “transnational Russian-speaking Jewish community”.
The “post-modernist” model of non-assignment to a certain ethnic group is of a growing interest.

We can see correlation between the strength of one’s Jewish feelings, the clarity of self-identification (the universal Jewish identity), and the number of Jewish grandparents.

What does it mean to be Jewish/part of the Jewish nation?

TO FEEL BELONGING TO THE JEWISH NATION
TO BE PROUD OF THE JEWISH HISTORY AND CULTURE
TO ADHERE TO THE JEWISH CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS AND CULTURE
TO HAVE JEWISH PARENTS
TO PARTICIPATE IN THE JEWISH COMMUNITY LIFE
TO FIGHT ANTI-SEMITISM
TO KEEP RELIGIOUS COMMANDMENTS, ATTEND THE SYNAGOGUE
TO HELP OTHER JEWS
TO BE A PATRIOT OF THE JEWISH STATE
TO TRY TO GET AND GIVE YOUR CHILDREN A JEWISH EDUCATION
TO HAVE A JEWISH SPOUSE
TO KNOW AND SPEAK HEBREW
TO LIVE IN ISRAEL
TO KNOW AND SPEAK YIDDISH AND OTHER LANGUAGES OF THE JEWISH DIASPORA

Compared to a similar survey that was conducted in 2005, the top three issues remained unchanged. However, while 58% of respondents considered adhering to the Jewish customs and traditions an important component of self-awareness in 2005, only 38% of respondents thought so in 2019.

A similar picture can be observed with the keeping of religious commandments and attending the synagogue: 27.7% in 2005 and just 16% in 2019.

The share of those who believe that patriotism towards Israel is an important component has also significantly decreased (from 40% in 2005 to 13% in 2019). The same applies to “helping other Jews” (decreased from 41.3% to 15%).

Assimilation issues

The future of Jewish identity is not obvious due to rather mild and even positive attitude towards mixed marriages.

In addition, comparison between the 2005 and 2019 studies shows that parents and grandparents are much less concerned whether their children and grandchildren preserve their Jewish identity.

At the same time, only a small percentage of respondents doubt the importance of Jewish education.

Attitude towards mixed marriages

35%

Positive

11%

Negative

25%

Doesn't matter

22%

Jewish marriage is preferred, but not essential

6%

Hard to tell

Is it important that children/grandchildren feel Jewish?

2005

58%

Yes

12%

No

30%

Hard to tell

2019

43%

Yes

29%

No

28%

Hard to tell

Importance of Jewish education

28%

Such education is important for every Jewish person

47%

A general understanding of history and culture is enough

13%

There is no particular need for such education

11%

Hard to tell

Presence and sources of Jewish education

NO SUCH EDUCATION
ATTENDED CLASSES ON JUDAISM/JEWISH HISTORY IN COMMUNITY CENTERS
WERE ENGAGED IN SELF-EDUCATION
ATTENDED/ATTENDING JEWISH DAY SCHOOL
LIVED AND STUDIED IN ISRAEL
ATTENDED/ATTENDING A JEWISH STUDIES PROGRAM AT UNIVERSITY/COLLEGE
ATTENDED/ATTENDING HEDER/YESHIVA

Questions of religion

The Soviet legacy continues to allocate religion a moderate role in the Jewish identity and determines the uniqueness of the post-Soviet Jewish identity model, in which ethno-national components prevail over religious ones, thus making the connection between following Judaism and Jewish self-identification not so straightforward.

Nevertheless, the growth of interest in Judaism and religion in the post-Soviet years has indicated stable “adherence” to Judaism in the broadest sense of the word. It does not always envisage the keeping of commandments, but is of a more traditional, ethno-national, and collective nature. Among those who do not consider themselves religious, 32% called Judaism their religion above all.

The share of those who consider Judaism their religion fell from 60% in 2005 to 43% in 2020 mainly due to an increase in the share of consistent atheists (which raised from 14.5% to 22%). The share of those who profess different religions, Christianity in particular, remains practically unchanged. As in other issues researched, the number of Jewish parents influences the stability of Jewish identity in the choice of adherence to Judaism, too.

Do you consider yourself religious?

27%

Yes

48%

No

25%

Hard to tell

Which religion do you consider yours?

43%

Judaism

16%

Christianity

14%

Both equally

22%

None

1%

Another (Islam, Buddhism, etc.)

Keeping Jewish traditions

9%

Regularly

6%

On Shabbats

16%

On holidays

27%

Occasionally

36%

Do not attend

5%

Believe there is no synagogue in their city

23%

Fully/always

47%

Partially/sometimes

24%

Never

5%

Hard to tell

12%

Fully/always

26%

Partially/sometimes

53%

Never

9%

Hard to tell

8%

Fully/always

21%

Partially/sometimes

60%

Never

10%

Hard to tell

16%

Fully/always

19%

Partially/sometimes

57%

Never

8%

Hard to tell

41%

Fully/always

29%

Partially/sometimes

26%

Never

5%

Hard to tell

27%

Fully/always

27%

Partially/sometimes

40%

Never

7%

Hard to tell

Public observance of the norms of Judaism, including attending the synagogue, is more of a community socialization factor than a religiosity criterion. Respondents are more active in public or family ceremonies (holidays, Passover, Hanukkah) than in keeping Jewish traditions that are related to personal space (Shabbat, Yom Kippur, kashrut). We can find at least three partially competing and partially interacting models of attitudes to religion in the Jewish environment in the post-Soviet space today. The first model is the “classical” (neo-traditionalist) view of the Jewry as an ethno-confessional or communal-confessional community. In it, Judaism as religion becomes the core of Jewish identity and religious institutions are the basis for this community.

The second model is based on the secular vision of Jewry as a “national” (ethnic status) group formed in the Soviet times. The Jewish religion here plays the role of a positive ethnic symbol that has been de-actualized in everyday life. The third, a “postmodern” model, on the contrary, considers multiculturalism, mixed ethnicity, and diversified religiosity as an acceptable and, in a sense, desirable element of Jewish life.

All these models and trends can contribute to the processes of ethnic consolidation and assimilation of the post-Soviet Jewry.

Connection to Israel

Israel was and remains the most important factor in the personal, cultural, and ethno-national identification of Jews of the former USSR. 55% of respondents (excluding Kazakhstan) visited Israel at least once. Another 5% have spent part of their lives in Israel.

The most attractive aspects of Israel for those polled in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova included its Jewish character (46%) and the fact that this “economically developed state provides good opportunities for life” (56%). Only 4% of respondents thought “there is nothing attractive in that country” or found it difficult to answer the question. Identification with Israel is also linked to respondents’ patriotism for the country of residence. It is interesting that 20% of respondents named Israel or Israel and the country of their residence as “their country to the greatest extent”. On the other hand, more than 70% of respondents believe that Jews should be patriots of both their country of residence and of Israel. 

So, the “poly-loyal” model of the democratic countries of the West has also been accepted in FSU countries.

Solidarity with Israel

69%

Have

6%

Do not have

25%

Hard to tell

Should Israel give up its Jewish character?

41%

In no case

27%

It should remain Jewish, but I understand those who demand changes

7%

Doesn't matter

9%

I am for the "state of all citizens"

15%

Hard to answer

What country should a Jewish person be a patriot of?

24%

First of all, of the country he lives in

48%

Countries of residence and Israel

16%

Israel first of all

11%

Hard to tell

Are you planning to emigrate?

25%

Yes

39%

No

35%

Have not decided yet

1%

Hard to tell