Anti-Semitism, Tolerance and Historical Memory in the Post-Soviet Space
The Institute of Euro-Asian Jewish Studies, operating under the auspices of the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress, has published a monographic issue. It includes articles by prominent scientists from Russia, Ukraine and Israel, which examine the problems of anti-Semitism, tolerance and historical memory in the post-Soviet space. This page presents the data partially. If you are interested in more specific data, please contact us.
Dynamics and perception of anti-Semitism by the Jewish population
In your opinion Anti-Semitism in your city and country in general:
Average for the countries of the former USSR [4]
14%
22%
38%
No significant changes
6%
20%
Have you or your relatives been the target of anti-Semitic incidents in recent years:
Average for the countries of the former USSR [4]
9%
17%
27%
Personally not, but know victims of such attacks
20%
Heard about the phenomenon, but do not personally know victims of such incidents
24%
Neither seen nor heard of them
Attitude towards Jews
🇷🇺 В России
How do you feel about the Jews?
🇷🇺 В России [7]
12%
With sympathy, interest
78%
Calmly, like about anyone else
4%
With irritation, dislike
5%
With mistrust, fear
Do you agree with the following statements
🇷🇺 In Russia [8]
Main characteristics of the Jews
🇷🇺 In Russia [9]
How would you feel about a Jew becoming the president of Russia?
🇷🇺 In Russia [10]
2020
28%
Have nothing against it
64%
Consider it undesirable
8%
Hard to answer
Perception of anti-Semitism by non-Jews
🇷🇺 In Russia
In describing the parameters of xenophobia and anti-Semitism, one should take into account protective psychological mechanisms of collec- tive identity, supplanting feelings of collective responsibility and guilt. In this context, the data of mass polls indicating a decrease in anti-Semitism in Russia should be accepted with adjustment for the tendency to push out unpleasant facts or transfer responsibility to the object of persecution, etc.
As seen from the obtained data, the absolute majority (66-85%) does not intend to recognize offensive statements against the Jews as explicitly or implicitly anti-Semitic (avoiding a direct moral assessment by avoiding an answer).
A survey conducted in July-August 2020 allowed to compare what the Russian population and Jewish respondents believe anti-Semitism is and what they believe it is not. The methodological procedure was based on a set of test statements borrowed from a European study on anti-Semitism. Jews and non-Jews were asked to express their attitude to several statements containing a set of common stereotypes and to determine whether they are anti-Semitic or not.
The explanation for the significant differences in the answers is that non-Jewish Russians are less sensitive to this topic than their fellow Jews. They do not pay attention to such statements, but not because they do not find them offensive, although some of these reactions can be attributed to a lack of empathy or the ability to empathize.
Either way, most Russians are not inclined to assess these stereotypes negatively. The perception of anti-Semitic or anti-Zionist statements is very blurred in Russia today; it is the “power” of the Jews in various spheres that is most often identified as manifestation of anti-Semitism. Denial of the Holocaust and of a sovereign Jewish state are the most painful topics for the Jewish people but it is not considered anti-Semitic by most Russians (56% and 67% of respondents). [11]
In your assessment, is there more or less anti- Semitism in Russia today than in the Soviet era?
🇷🇺 In Russia [12]
19%
More + far more
22%
The same
36%
Less + far less
23%
Hard to answer
Do you consider statements made by non-Jews to be anti-Semitic?
🇷🇺 In Russia [13]
Statements | Definitely yes + Probably yes | Probably not + definitely not |
|---|---|---|
* Survey of the non-Jewish population | ||
Jews in Russia have too much power (in economics, politics, and media) | 40% | 42% |
Jews exploit the Holocaust theme for personal gain | 29% | 49% |
Holocaust is a myth, and its scale is exaggerated | 25% | 56% |
The world would be a better place with no Israel in it | 15% | 67% |
Israelis treat Palestinians like Nazis | 29% | 33% |
In the past 12 months, have you met people of non-Jewish origin expressing the following statements?
🇷🇺 В России
Statements | Constantly/often + sometimes (survey of the non-Jewish population) | Constantly/often + sometimes (survey of the Jewish population) |
|---|---|---|
Jews in Russia have too much power (in economics, politics, and media) | 35% | 77% |
Jews exploit the Holocaust theme for personal gain | 24% | 50% |
Holocaust is a myth, and its scale is exaggerated | 18% | 49% |
The world would be a better place with no Israel in it | 13% | 25% |
Israelis treat Palestinians like Nazis | 25% | 50% |
Do you agree that insults to the national dignity of the Jews, oppression and threats against them should be punished to the fullest extent of the law?
🇷🇺 В России [14]
2020
52%
Agree
34%
Disagree
14%
Hard to answer
Knowledge of the Holocaust
🇷🇺 In Russia
The overwhelming majority of respondents (87%) know about the mass extermination of the Jews. 12% have never heard of the Jewish genocide or firstly found out about it from our questionnaire. The prevalence of knowledge about the Holocaust over the past decades has been slowly declining due to the indifference of the young people. More educated categories of the population are more aware of this tragedy, primarily in Moscow (97%), half of whom have college/university degrees, respondents in the most active age of 25-39 years old (81%), and especially people over 40 years old (92-93%). But a quarter of young people (18-24 years old) first heard about the genocide of the Jews in our survey.
Knowledge of this kind decreases with the transition from urbanized social communities to the countryside, although even in the countryside 82% of respondents are aware of this. 1% have heard about the mass extermination of the Jews during the Second World War but do not believe it (among young people this figure is 3%).
The question of the scale of the tragedy of the Jews caused our respon- dents the greatest difficulty. More than half of respondents (58%) found it difficult or refused to answer it.
The attitude to this topic is far from unambiguous: more than half (55%) of respondents believe it important to include stories of the Shoah, as well as of the oppression of the Jews in the Russian Empire and in Soviet times into school lessons. But about a third of respondents (31%) object to any lessons on the Holocaust, considering it unnecessary for the education of the younger generation or formation of national pride and patriotism.
There are more young people and students (64%) among those who believe that history lessons should teach not only about the Holocaust, but also about anti-Semitism and oppression of the Jews. [15]
Do you know what the Holocaust is?
🇷🇺 In Russia [16]
87%
Know
12%
Never heard
How often do you encounter Holocaust denial?
🇷🇺 In Russia
3%
All the time
4%
Often
14%
Sometimes
79%
Never
Knowledge of Jewish culture and history; anti-Semitic theories and attitude towards Israel
🇷🇺 In Russia
Do you know what the Pale of Settlement is?
🇷🇺 In Russia [18]
75%
Don’t know + hard to answer
8%
Know
17%
Misunderstand
Have you heard of the Zionist conspiracy?
🇷🇺 In Russia
74%
No, never heard before
26%
Heard
Do you think such conspiracy really exists?
🇷🇺 In Russia
16%
Yes, it does
55%
No, it does not
29%
Hard to answer
What is Zionism?
🇷🇺 In Russia
19%
A policy aimed at establishing Jewish dominance throughout the world
18%
The movement of the Jewish people to return to their historical homeland and strengthen the Jewish state
8%
An ideology that justifies Israeli aggression in the Middle East
8%
The religion of the Jewish people
11%
A movement for the revival of Jewish traditions and culture
36%
References
[1] Prof. Vladimir (Ze’ev) Khanin, Dr. Nethanel (Nati) Kantorovich, Anti-Semitism in the Post-Soviet Space – the Big Picture
.
[2] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Sociological Aspects of Phenomena of Anti-Semitism and Xenophobia in Modern Russia
[6] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Anti-Semitism in Modern Russia (based on 2020 Levada Center research)
[7] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Sociological Aspects of Phenomena of Anti-Semitism and Xenophobia in Modern Russia
[8] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Anti-Semitism in Modern Russia (based on 2020 Levada Center research)
[9] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Sociological Aspects of Phenomena of Anti-Semitism and Xenophobia in Modern Russia
[10] Ibid.
[11] Dr. Alexey Levinson, Prof. Lev Gudkov, The Factor of Anti-Semitism in the Self-Awareness of Russian Jews
[12] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Anti-Semitism in Modern Russia (based on 2020 Levada Center research)
[13] Dr. Alexey Levinson, Prof. Lev Gudkov, The Factor of Anti-Semitism in the Self-Awareness of Russian Jews
[14] Prof. Lev Gudkov, Anti-Semitism in Modern Russia (based on 2020 Levada Center research)
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Ibid.
Authors
Prof. Vladimir (Ze’ev) Khanin (Jerusalem) lectures Israel and Jewish Studies at Ariel University and Political Studies at Bar-Ilan University; Academic Chairman of the Institute for Euro-Asian Jewish Studies (IEAJS).
Dr. Nethanel (Nati) Kantorovich (Jerusalem) is Director of the Information and Research Department of the Nativ Organization for Liaison with Jews in Eastern Europe under the Office of the Prime Minister of Israel; an expert of the IEAJS.
Prof. Lev Gudkov is Doctor of Philosophy, Director of the Yuri Levada Analytical Center (Levada Center), editor-in-chief of the Public Opinion Bulletin, Professor at the Higher School of Economics (Moscow)
Dr. Alexei Levinson is head of the Sociocultural Research Department of the Yuri Levada Analytical Center, Moscow
Prof. Yaroslav Hrytsak is Doctor of History, Professor of the Ukrainian Catho- lic University (Lviv), Director of the Institute of Historical Research of the Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, founding editor of the academic Ukraine Modern yearbook.